Translating the Chinese Arthapada - Yi Zu Jing (Pali Atthakavagga)
The main aim of this project is to translate the core of the Arthapada sutra (Yi Zu Jing) from Chinese into modern English, the sutra is perhaps better known as the Atthakavagga sutta or the Chapter of Eights from the Pali canon found in the collection called the Sutta Nipata (see Norman 1984). The Chinese parallel version like its Pali counter part is a small and very old anthology containing 16 sutras, the anthology is also found in part in Sanskrit, Gandhari, with verses also being quoted in other parts of the canonical suttas of the Pali canon. The verses themselves are somewhat similar to the Dharmapada, being short verses and widely known across all the major early schools of Buddhism.
So why were these and other similar sutras so widely attested to in Buddhist writings?
A clue may be found in the Indian vinaya of the Mahasanghika, recorded in a Chinese translation where it encourages new Buddhist monks to train themselves using five texts for their instruction: the Arthapada (Atthakavagga), Parayanavagga, Rhinoceros Sutra and Song of Lake Anavatapta with the fifth being unidentified (see Salomon, 2018, p. 92). It would seem that these, and no doubt other texts were part of the foundational training for monks in the early Buddhist schools and so appear frequently across different languages used by Buddhists to record their sutras. By becoming familiar with these early verses found in the Arthapada we gain a window into the past, allowing us to see what was important in the minds of the early Buddhist communities.
Zhi Qian the Translator and the Sutra
The Arthapada sutra was translated by Zhi Qian sometime after 229 CE from an Indian Prakrit language as noted by translator Dr P. V. Bapat in the 1940’s. Since then and with discovery of the fragmentary Gandhari buddhist canon, an hypothesis now current among scholars proposes that the Prakrit indicated in the Chinese translations is Gandhari, though not in the case of every Chinese translation. Gandhari itself comes from northern Indian and was also spoken along parts of the silk road. Recent discoveries of thousands of sutra fragments and many partially complete sutras in Gandhari point to a once existing vast body of buddhist literature.
Fragments of the Arthapada sutra in its original Indian Prakrit have been found in the Gandhari region making them among some of the earliest buddhist sutras found so far. As the fragments consist of only a small number of verses (see Falk, H. 2011), Zhi Qian's translation is our only full parallel sutra we have extent, next to the Pali Atthakavagga.
So why are parallels important?
Some hypothesise that the very existence of parallel buddhist canons from different buddhist traditions point to a common source of very early material which if identified would give insights into important beliefs and philosophies of the earliest buddhist communities. Many scholars certainly feel the parallels highlight communality but they also show differences between the buddhist communities and much important work is still to be under taken in this field.
So what do we now about Zhi Qian who translated the Arthapada sutra?
He was born in the North of China, the son of an Yuezhi immigrant family (for more about the Yuezhi’s connection with India and Bactria see wikipedia). He had the reputation in his youth of being outstanding in mastering languages. Eventually he settled in one of the Wu Kingdom’s of China and became the tutor to the crown prince of the region. It was during this time he translated the majority of his work, later in life he retired to a mountain monastery as an Upasaka, he died at the age of sixty in 252 CE leaving behind a large body of translations and a valued reputation as scholar of his time (see Nattier, 2008).
Unique features of Zhi Qian's Translation
The Arthapada sutra is comprised of two styles of writing, prose and verse. The prose mainly introduces the verse be setting the seen. Scholars recognise the verse section of the sutra to be older than the prose and this is a common feature of many Buddhist sutras. The prose was used as adaptable stage settings for delivering the verses, helping to give context and meaningful application to the readers or listeners of the sutra. Within the sutra not all verses are identified as part of the original Arthapada, as some verses are taken form other texts. The main focus of this translation will be to concentrate on the older verse sections of the sutra identified as coming from the original anthology before the prose and other verse were added. The verse sections are divided into 16 chapters, this parallels the Pali Atthakavagga. However, the order of chapters 10-16 of the Arthapada is different from the Pali Atthakavagga.
Zhi Qian’s translations reflects a concern for what is called the Indian songs or verses in his translations. Unlike the prose the verses have meter or rhythm to them, and would be somewhat like singing a poem (rather than just reading as is normal in English), this is also common in Chinese poetry recital to this day. Zhi Qian shows sensitivity to this poetic meter by developing a unique six (including five and four) character style in translating the verses and in so doing maybe trying to communicate a sense of the meter form the original Indian sutra.
Nature and Scope of this Translation
My translation work will be based on two texts, the first is the Chinese Taisho 198, Yi Zu Jing, made available by The Nan Tien Institute. I will be translating the verse sections of the sutra only, the equivalent to the Pali Atthakavagga. In so doing I aim to provide an easily accessible parallel translation to the Atthakavagga.
Finally, my goal is to provide a modern english translation of the above poems which will lean more on the literal side rather than the poetic, so as to follow the original Chinese as closely as I possibly can. Yet there will always be some ambiguity which is to be expected from such ancient poetry. (Any significant word or phrase additions to the original Chinese text will appear in square brackets in the translations). I also want to highlight the close connection between the Chinese sutras and the ancient buddhist civilisation of Gandhara.
Fragments of the Arthapada sutra in its original Indian Prakrit have been found in the Gandhari region making them among some of the earliest buddhist sutras found so far. As the fragments consist of only a small number of verses (see Falk, H. 2011), Zhi Qian's translation is our only full parallel sutra we have extent, next to the Pali Atthakavagga.
So why are parallels important?
Some hypothesise that the very existence of parallel buddhist canons from different buddhist traditions point to a common source of very early material which if identified would give insights into important beliefs and philosophies of the earliest buddhist communities. Many scholars certainly feel the parallels highlight communality but they also show differences between the buddhist communities and much important work is still to be under taken in this field.
So what do we now about Zhi Qian who translated the Arthapada sutra?
He was born in the North of China, the son of an Yuezhi immigrant family (for more about the Yuezhi’s connection with India and Bactria see wikipedia). He had the reputation in his youth of being outstanding in mastering languages. Eventually he settled in one of the Wu Kingdom’s of China and became the tutor to the crown prince of the region. It was during this time he translated the majority of his work, later in life he retired to a mountain monastery as an Upasaka, he died at the age of sixty in 252 CE leaving behind a large body of translations and a valued reputation as scholar of his time (see Nattier, 2008).
Unique features of Zhi Qian's Translation
The Arthapada sutra is comprised of two styles of writing, prose and verse. The prose mainly introduces the verse be setting the seen. Scholars recognise the verse section of the sutra to be older than the prose and this is a common feature of many Buddhist sutras. The prose was used as adaptable stage settings for delivering the verses, helping to give context and meaningful application to the readers or listeners of the sutra. Within the sutra not all verses are identified as part of the original Arthapada, as some verses are taken form other texts. The main focus of this translation will be to concentrate on the older verse sections of the sutra identified as coming from the original anthology before the prose and other verse were added. The verse sections are divided into 16 chapters, this parallels the Pali Atthakavagga. However, the order of chapters 10-16 of the Arthapada is different from the Pali Atthakavagga.
Zhi Qian’s translations reflects a concern for what is called the Indian songs or verses in his translations. Unlike the prose the verses have meter or rhythm to them, and would be somewhat like singing a poem (rather than just reading as is normal in English), this is also common in Chinese poetry recital to this day. Zhi Qian shows sensitivity to this poetic meter by developing a unique six (including five and four) character style in translating the verses and in so doing maybe trying to communicate a sense of the meter form the original Indian sutra.
Nature and Scope of this Translation
My translation work will be based on two texts, the first is the Chinese Taisho 198, Yi Zu Jing, made available by The Nan Tien Institute. I will be translating the verse sections of the sutra only, the equivalent to the Pali Atthakavagga. In so doing I aim to provide an easily accessible parallel translation to the Atthakavagga.
The second text is the only English version available of the sutra, translated by P.V Bapat in 1945 (printed in 1951). This is an excellent scholarly work, however the language used in the translation of is now archaic and at times does not follow the Chinese. Thus the second aim of this translation project is to make the Arthapada sutra available in an English translation that's modern and accurate (as far as I'm able).
When needed I will also consultant the Atthakavagga in Pali made available by Sutta Central and current English translations of the Pali Atthakavagga (see Bibliography).
The first phase of this translation work is to translate the following four sutras from the Arthapada, known in the Pali Atthakavagga as:
Guhatthakasutta – The Chapter of Eights, The Cave
Dutthattaksutta – The Chapter of Eights, Evil
Suddhattakasutta – The Chapter of Eights, The Purified
Paramattakasutta – The Chapter of Eights, The Highest
Scholars such as K R Norman have suggested that these represent the earliest core of poems to which other poems were gradually added to, finally being closed at 16 sutras - "Since the four suttas which have Atthakasutta in their names all have eight verses, in the Trisṭubh metre, which is generally speaking an old metre in Pāli, we might reasonably suppose that these four suttas are the core of the Atthakavagga, to which other suttas have been added" (Norman 1992 p. 323).
I will also translate the Kamasutta - Sensual Pleasures. The first sutra in both the Chinese and Pail collections, as way of setting the scene with its familiar buddhist metaphors.
When needed I will also consultant the Atthakavagga in Pali made available by Sutta Central and current English translations of the Pali Atthakavagga (see Bibliography).
The first phase of this translation work is to translate the following four sutras from the Arthapada, known in the Pali Atthakavagga as:
Guhatthakasutta – The Chapter of Eights, The Cave
Dutthattaksutta – The Chapter of Eights, Evil
Suddhattakasutta – The Chapter of Eights, The Purified
Paramattakasutta – The Chapter of Eights, The Highest
Scholars such as K R Norman have suggested that these represent the earliest core of poems to which other poems were gradually added to, finally being closed at 16 sutras - "Since the four suttas which have Atthakasutta in their names all have eight verses, in the Trisṭubh metre, which is generally speaking an old metre in Pāli, we might reasonably suppose that these four suttas are the core of the Atthakavagga, to which other suttas have been added" (Norman 1992 p. 323).
I will also translate the Kamasutta - Sensual Pleasures. The first sutra in both the Chinese and Pail collections, as way of setting the scene with its familiar buddhist metaphors.
To conclude the translation work I will present two fragments of the Arthapada in Gandhari from The ‘Split’ Collection of Kharoṣṭhī Texts and the Pali parallel verses. Along with the translation of the parallel verses from the Chinese Yi Zu Jing (Arthapada).
Finally, my goal is to provide a modern english translation of the above poems which will lean more on the literal side rather than the poetic, so as to follow the original Chinese as closely as I possibly can. Yet there will always be some ambiguity which is to be expected from such ancient poetry. (Any significant word or phrase additions to the original Chinese text will appear in square brackets in the translations). I also want to highlight the close connection between the Chinese sutras and the ancient buddhist civilisation of Gandhara.